Chapter - 25

Fundamental Sailing Practice

There are two safety precautions to take immediately when hit by a strong puff of wind.

1—Luff up
2—Let go the sheets thus allowing the sails to spill the wind.

In very strong winds small boats should remain at their moorings. But there are times when a sudden and unusually strong wind or squall comes up and you are caught out on the water. How you handle yourself and the boat are of utmost importance to avoid accident to sail, rigging and possibly to yourself.

At times like these you must be constantly alert to wind and wave and the relative actions of the boat. An eye should be kept on the boats to windward, for they get the wind first. How these boats handle themselves will be a clue as to what to expect and what you will have to do when the wind strikes.

The first precaution to take in any sudden strong wind is to luff up. Steer your boat into the eye of the wind. Ease all sheets. If the boat is of centerbord type, lower the board all the way.

If strong winds increase in velocity, drop the sails (mainsail first). If a real black squall appears, drop the sails immediately and run before it under bare poles if the squall brings violent winds. If your boat is moving too rapidly, slow its progress by trailing the anchor warp, or a bucket over the stern.
If ever in doubt as to the force of wind or whether to carry sail or not, drop the sails for safety; the mainsail first as this has the greater sail area. As the sails come down gather them in, lean on them and hold them down until they are tied up securely. If you let them lie loose the wind will get into them, raise them and slam the boat over.

If close to a lee shore, or a hazard of a kind that could damage the boat, or (the exact reverse) the storm is pushing you out to sea, anchor. Let out as much anchor line as possible so the boat rides easily and does not drag.

If the wind continues in force but it is safe to carry some sail there are a number of ways of sailing safely which are described on the following pages.

BROAD REACHING

If you have to sail in strong winds broad reaching is about the safest point of sailing.

Constant play of the sails against the strength of wind will keep the boat in as upright a position as is possible. Let out sheet and luff up in the puffs, bear off and haul in sheet when the wind softens or lets up. Always try to keep movement on the boat for that increases stability and maneuverability. Hold just enough sail to die wind for driving power. Both main and jib will be partly luffing; only the after end of both sails will catch the wind and furnish drive to the boat.

SAILING WITH A TIGHT JIB AND A LUFFING MAINSAIL

This method is very effective in carrying the boat through the puffs while carrying alt sail and still keeping good movement on the boat. It relieves some of the wind pressure on the main, thereby keeping the boat more upright. Let the jib backwind the main. If the jib is allowed to flap furiously it will tear. The main luffs but still has drive in the after end of the sail. Hold the sheets in hands or under a cleat to eliminate the strain on arms.

Be ready to release both jib and main sheets quickly should wind force get too great. Sit up on high side and help balance boat by leaning to windward.

The illustration at the left shows a group of International One Designs racing in a rough sea. The arries point to the luffing mainsails and light jibs, one method of sailing through sudden, strong, puffs of wind as explained in, the paragraph left above.

SAILING WITH JIB ALONE

There are several ways of sailing in winds not having the force or strength to order you to drop the sails but still with strength enough to create concern for the safety of boat and crew.

The easiest and safest is probably dropping the mainsail, lying it up and sailing with jib alone. You are then .sailing under as short canvas as possible, that is, provided you do not have a storm jib.

It is surprising how well you can reach and often how high you can point with the jib alone. To a degree you have control of the course to sail, though your leeway will he greater than usual. Running before the wind or reaching is much steadier and easier than trying to beat.

Sit on the high side or in the bottom of the cockpit to help keep the boat upright. Do no fasten the jib sheet but hold it in hands, relieving any strain by holding die sheet under a cleat.
 
COMING ABOUT TO CHANGE COURSE (AVOIDING A JIBE), WHEN RUNNING IN STRONG WINDS AND ROUGH SEAS

The action of the sea and the height of the waves play an important part in this maneuver. Generally there are three or four steep, high waves, then a series of short rollers, then three or four more steep ones, and so on. The trick is to luff and come about when the seas run low. Good helmsmanship, good judgment and good timing also play their parts.
 
Do not come around fast for there is constant handling of straining sheets. Make a big wide loop broad reaching, then swing to a close reach. Time yourself so that when the seas run low, heat and quickly luff to come about. When the sails are on the. opposite side let the sheets out (see that they don't snarl) to the point of reaching. Then let out more sheet so as to again run before the wind.

An Atlantic Class sloop sailing through a squall with the mainsail alone. The crew is all on the windward side helping to counteract the extra force in the wind in order to keep the craft as upright as possible. Keeping movement on the boat makes for better stability.

SAILING WITH MAINSAIL ALONE

You have better control of the boat when sailing with the main alone on a reach than when sailing with jib alone, but more sail area is exposed to the wind. The boat will have greater heel, is apt to roll more with the varying force of wind but will have greater speed through the water.

You can luff more easily should strong wind puffs come along. You luff quicker too, for the wind force is on the main alone which in turn has a great tendency to make the bow swing into-the wind. This also creates a weather helm, so much so that the boat will automatically come up into the wind should you let go of the tiller.
 
Keep the crew up on the windward side and lean outward during the puffs to help keep the boat as upright as possible.
 
REEFING THE SMALL SAILBOAT

There are small boat skippers who prefer to reef when the winds remain consistently strong. They find the boat easier to handle with the shortened canvas.
Not all small sailboats have reef points in their sails. Many boats are constantly being used for racing, their skippers believing that reef points offer wind resistance and interfere with the smooth flow of air along the sail. They, therefore, order sails without reef points.

Many small boat racing skippers believe that reefing, as a rule, is not necessary, particularly if the boat can be handled by any of the previously described methods.

However, larger sailboats, whether used for racing or cruising, do have reef points. It is common practice with large-boat skippers to reef when necessary.

Reefing must be done right or the sail will tear and/or pull out of shape.

Here is a good method of doing it. Steer the boat into the eye of the wind, drop the jib and tie or stop it. Put the boom crotch in place and drop the boom into it as the mainsail is lowered. Lower the mainsail all the way, gathering it in¯ as it comes down so that it doesn't fly into the water. Haul the main sheet in tight and make it fast; this keeps the boom from jumping out of the boom crotch. Never leave the mainsail partly hoisted for it will pull and flap in the strong wind, greatly hindering the operation; besides, the strong wind may fill the sail and cap-sire your boat.

Have two short pieces of 7/16" line handy, each about five or six feet in length. Take one of the pieces and lash the tack reef cringle to the boom. Now take the leech reef cringle, pull straight along the boom and away from the mast. Keep the canvas straight and even with the reef bands in a line. With the other piece of line lash this leech cringle down around the boom, then aft to the outhaul or end of the boom and fasten securely.

No. 2, lash the tack reef cringle to boom. No. 3, holding the leech reef cringle, pull the sail out along the boom. When the sail is stretched taut lash the reef cringle around the boom. Continue pulling aft, then lash end of line around outhaul and boom. No. 4, keep reef bands in a line.

Here is shown the difference in sail area from before reefing, dotted line No. 5, to the sail after reefing, solid line; a noticeable reduction in area.

Unfasten the mainsheet, raise the mainsail and stow boom crotch; raise jib and then bear off and you are underway. Keep sheets unsnarled.

The above Week Ender class cruising auxiliary sloop shows* a very neat and evenly tied reef. The boom appears to be quite high from the cabin top but the craft is riding beautifully. Should the wind blow stronger the skipper would find it to his advantage to tower the boom as close to the cabin top as is feasible to help prevent excessive keeling.

Now take that part of the sail between the reef bands and the foot rope and pull through to the side opposite to that on which most of the sail hangs. Pull [his out as evenly as possible and roll up. Form into a nice, neat roll, then tuck between the reef bands and the foot rope, leaving the reef points free. Tie this roll together with the reef points, using a square or reef knot, but be sure to bring the reef points under the foot rope (not the boom). Check all of the knots to see that they are tight and in an even line. Now you are ready to raise sail. Unfasten the main sheet; haul on the main halyard and as soon as the boom clears the crotch stow it so that it will not foul the main sheet when the sail fills. Check ail the lashings and knots for uneven strain and be sure that all are securely tied. Then take the stops off the jib, hoist and get underway.

If there are more than two in the crew the jib is often left up, the mainsail alone being dropped while the craft is luffing. When the reef is being tied in, the craft is again put on course with the jib full and drawing. Keeping momentum on the craft increases stability and steadies it in a rough and rolling sea.
There is a disadvantage in keeping the jib up with only two in a crew, however, for one has to steer and control the boat. The other has to do all of the reefing and moving about, often having to work with only one hand, as the other is needed to hold on.

Cross section of boom and sail showing how sail is rolled and tied. In No. 1, the sail, between the foot rope and reef band, is pulled through to the side opposite to that on which the sail hangs. in No. 2, the sail is Tolled up neatly. In No. 3, it is tucked between the reef bands and foot rope, then tied with a reef knot. No. 4 shows the rolled or reefed sail after it has been hoisted.

The sloop at left does not have a reef tied in her mainsail. Instead of reefing, a short sail that corresponds in area to a regular reefed sail is Set. This sail is almost always made of very heavy fabric to withstand the strong winds.

Right, number 1 shows boom setting in boom notch. Numbers 2 and 3 show where the sail is tied to the boom. N¤· 4 shows how the reef points are passed under the foot rope (between the foot rope and sail track) and then tied in an even, straight line.

HOW TO TIE THE SLIPPERY REEF KNOT

As shown at the left (number 1) take the black strand, pass over the white strand, then under and again aver the white strand.

Number 2, take end A of the white strand and pass this end under the black strand.

Number 3, form a tight loop with the black strand at point marked B. Pass loop under, them aver the white strand and pull through to hold it in place.

Number 4, hold both ends of the white strand together in one hand, and the black strand loop with the the hand. Pull very tight but be sure the end does not pull alt the way through and out.

The slippery reef knot, when tied properly, has an advantage over the regular reef knot in that it cm be quickly untied by simply pulling the loose end. In making, it must be pulled very tight or it will loosen and then »pen. Should the knot open, unequal and extra strain on the other knots generally results in a torn sail.

HOW TO TIE THE REEF OR SQUARE KNOT

The reef knot is started in exactly the same way as the slippery reef knot, by taking the black strand, passing it over the white strand and then under *nd again over the white strand, as at rightc, number I.

Number 2, take the end A of the white strand, turn it and pass it under the black strand.

Number 3, take the end of the black strand B, pass it under and then over the white strand, as in this illustration.

Number 4, now hold both ends of the black strand in one hand, and both ends of the white strand in the other hand, pull tight. When tied properly this knot will not open and may even be difficult to untie when wet. It is designed to hold and hold well.

Shaking Out The Reef

Suppose the wind has let up or you're back at your mooring and want to undo the reef. A reef should never be left in any longer than necessary for it can distort the shape of the sail.

Undoing or taking out a reef is called "shaking out." To shake out a reef go about ìt in exact reverse order in which the reef was originally tied.
 
Lower the mainsail, drop the boom in the boom crotch while so doing. Haul in tight on the main sheet and fasten. Untie the reef points first, double checking to see that they are all untied. Then untie the outhaul fastening, leech, cringle fastening, followed by the tack cringle fastening. Now raise the mainsail so the wrinkles formed in the sail by the reef come out.

Jibing

To jibe is to bring the boat around to the other tack "stern** into the wind.

Above are four sequence drawings illustrating the jibe. In No. 1, above, the boom and mainsail are far out to starboard. The boat is running before the wind, centerboard is down.

In step No. 2, \he boom has been hauled in to a tight close reach position. The wind is aft, still holding the mainsail on the starboard side.

In step No. 3, the jib sheet U released, then the course is changed. As the stern swings, the wind gets back of the sail end it snaps over to the opposite or port side as in this instance. Sheets are never fastened but held by hand. The crew must be ready to shift positions, dodge boom as it swings over and work the sheets.

Generally you use the jibe when sailing Wore the wind and (1) when you want to change your course without coming about, (2) when the wind has shifted and you want to avoid sailing by the lee, or (3) when you have to round a buoy or breakwater -where there is limited sea room.

There is still another situation that is used in windward-leeward racing called the racing jibe. Here, when on a beat, you have to swing to a run (with the boom on the opposite side) when rounding a buoy, in order to save time and hold position.

A jibe should not be attempted in very strong winds. When the going gets really rough, experienced skippers avoid it.

However, in light and ordinary winds a jibe is a common and ordinary maneuver easily performed but it should be done right and must be controlled at all times.

Here is how it is done.

You are sailing before the wind with the boom out as far as it will go. If the boat is of the centerboard type drop the board for additional stability. Haul in on the mainsheet, maintaining course while so doing.
 
Keep hauling on the mainsheet until it is almost as tight as when you are beating. Release the jib sheet so that the jib swings freely. Keep the mainsheet (the part you are hauling in) clear so that it can run out freely and quickly without snarling—That means let the coils of the sheet drop loosely one over the other. Don't allow them to be kicked around.

Steer carefully and slowly to the side the boom is1 on. The wind will get in back of the mainsail arid swing the boom over. The boom will snap over fast. Keep your head low, shift weight to opposite side, and don't get tangled in the mainsheet. To ease the jolt let the mainsheet run out but control its run out so that the boom will not bang the shrouds. Push the tiller to center, adjust the jib sheet so the jib again draws and you are on course again.

Some skippers, when jibing in very light air, haul in the mainsheet 'hand over band.' That is, instead of hauling the sheet through the blocks they gather or pull in the sheet as if they were hauling and gathering ¡n a line. After the boom has passed over they also let out the sheet now on the opposite side 'hand over hand.'

In step No. 4, as the boom comes over, the mainsheet is slowly released until the sail is at its correct angle to the wind. Then the jib sheet is attended to for proper setting of jib.

At right is a photograph of a Resolute sloop in the middle of a jibe, in a position between steps 2 and 3, as illustrated at the left. The boom is almost at center and swinging to the port side. The jib is just beginning to catch the change of wind as it has been blanketed by the mainsail. Notice the crewman keeping his head low to avoid being clobbered by boom while handling sheets.

When the wind shifts or swings from one quarter to the other and a prescribed a jibe is in order. This avoids the hazardous and worrisome sailing "by the lee."

REMEMBER ALWAYS SHORTEN SHEET ON A JIBE. Always control its operation. Do not let the boom swing wildly from one side to the other. Except in the very, very lightest airs this should always be followed.

In the lightest of variable and shifting airs, where there is no strain on the mast or rigging, the boom is often pushed by hand from one side to the other. You will often see this done in races where the skippers are anxious to pick up the slightest of breezes to gain a few yards in distance.

It has been said that there are only two kinds of jibes, the controlled one and the accidental one. The controlled jibe you have just read about.

The accidental jibe can te dangerous and destructive. It can happen with a sudden shift of wind or by a careless helmsman not watching the wind and not sailing the proper course. Imagine the boom and sail swinging over rapidly without control. Your head may be in the way and you may get knocked overboard. The sheets may also foul the tiller or snarl into a knot,! leaving you without control of your craft.

Above, stern views of the comparative angles of heel in the racing jibe, as depicted in the diagram below. It readily illustrates the critical point of this jibe, #2 and #3, where extreme caution and quick action are necessary.

THE RACING JIBE

In both diagrams the numerals show comparative positions of the boat during the racing jibe. Numerals 1 show the normal close-hauled position and angle of heel of the craft approaching the buoy.

At numbers 2, the boom is hauled in as tight as it will come. From the diagrams it can be seen that the dangerous part of the jibe is when the sail is flat to the full force of the wind. In a strong wind a knockdown can occur here.

At numbers 3, the tiller is snapped over fast. As the wind forces the sail over, the crew must be ready and extremely nimble to shift weight from one high side to the other, as the boat makes an extremely sharp turn.

At numbers 4, the sheets are let out and at numbers 5, the sheets and sails are set for the run back.

In light winds this maneuver is accomplished in a normal and easy way. Sometimes whole fleets of sailboats are seen going around a buoy in this manner. It is when the wind is strong that care must be exercised.
 
Relative positions of sails in rounding a buoy. "If" with arrow indicates wind direction.

Helpful Hint

 

A cockpit cover is essential for keeping rain and weather out of the boat when it lies unattended at anchor. It helps keep the inside of the boat dry. Water or dampness in the bilge soaks into the wood, making the boat heavy. A heavy boat sails more slowly and is not as lively a sailing craft as it should be.

Here is an ideal type of cockpit cover for the small sailboat. It is closed in front and open at the after end to allow for ventilation, it hangs over the boom and is fastened in front by a collar around the mast. Lines hold the lower forward ends to the shrouds, the after end is held by a line tied to the boom. Snaps just under the rail hold the sides in place and prevent them from blowing out.

LEAVING THE MOORING

Unless there is an adverse stronger tide to contend with the boat will always be facing into the wind when at its mooring. On arriving at the boat, first remove the cockpit cover and lower the centerboard, which was raised just before leaving the last time.

Lift the floorboards to see if any water has seeped into the bilge.  If there is, sponge or pump it out. Always try to keep the bilge dry.

After the rudder and tiller have been attached, unbag then bend on the mainsail. Raise it. Adjust the outhaul and downhaul. Keep the boom in the boom crotch, Unbag the jib and fasten it to the forestay. Attach the jib halyard and the jib sheets.  Raise the jib, let it fly. Remove the boom crotch and let the mainsheet run. Decide which tack you are going to lake, and then cast off the mooring.   Let the boat drift backward a bit so as to be free of the mooring, Hold  jib  aback.   When  bow  has  turned,  haul in  on main and jib sheets so that the sails fill with wind.  You are under way.

From left to right are a set of six sequence sketches showing steps taken when leaving a mooring. In No. 1, left,, the cockpit cover is removed and the centerboard lowered all the way. Lowering the centerboard gives stability to the craft, preventing it from tipping too far to one side or the other as you move about.

No. 2, right, sponge or pump out the bilge to remove any rainwater or seepage that has accumulated. Attach the rudder and tiller. Mop the deck if necessary.

The mooring splashes into the water after having been released by the crewman forward. Although the main is just beginning to fill and draw, the flapping jib will ¿e put aback to help turn the boat's bow. As the boat falls off, the sheets will be hauled in or let out depending upon the sail trim de· sired for the course to be sailed. The other crew members are busy coiling lines and stowing gear.

The mainsail of this Resolute class sailboat is being raised. Here the lug rope of the mainsail is being guided through a slot in the mast. Track and slides are not used. The fellow sitting aft is not idle. He is hauling on the main halyard raising the sail. The halyards on these craft come down through a hollow in the mast and are hauled from below decks. This keeps the halyards, when coiled, away from other lines.

No. 3, left, bend on the mainsail, insert the battens tieing them in carefully, then raise the sail to its proper height. Adjust out haul.

No. 4, right, fasten the jib to the jib stay, attack jib sheets and run them aft on their respective sides, but do not cleat them for the jib must fly freely after it is raised.

No. 5, left, remove the boom crotch, slack the mainsheet, then cast of the mooring. Be sure to keep alt the lines clear of one another so that they don't snarl.

No. 6, right, hold the jib aback (see illustrations on following page) then when the bow has turned, haul in on main and jib sheets. To get good movement on the boat sail away on a reach.

JIB ABACK

A JIB can be put aback to assure that the bow of the boat will turn in a desired direction. This is often necessary when leaving the mooring in a crowded anchorage because of the proximity of other boats, a dock, a shoal or an obstruction restricting free sailing.

To put a jib aback, take hold of the clew, first making sure that the jib sheets are loose and not cleated. Hold it out opposite to the side the bow is to swing or opposite to the direction the boat is to sail. The wind will catch the jib and turn the bow. When the bow has turned to a point that the sails can fill and a course can be sailed, let go the clew so that the jib can swing freely. Now when the sheets are hauled the boat will be on its desired course. Read chapter nine—In Irons.

"W" with arrow, indicate* direction of wind.

Three sequence drawings illustrating putting the jib aback—a simple easy maneuver that takes only seconds to do. It assures the bow's turning off in the desired direction. Above left shows the craft, all sail hoisted, after it hat dropped its mooring. The sails are fluttering in the wind.

The center illustration shows how the jib is held out (put aback) until the bow has turned.

The illustration below shows the boat, all sails trimmed, sailing off on a clear course.

Lighting craft number 6612 evidentally was sailing too high to clear the buoy just ahead of it. In the very evident light air, a crewman is reaching forward and putting the jib aback so that the bow will fall off and the sails again fill with wind.

LEAVING THE MOORING—WIND AND TIDE FROM DIFFERENT DIRECTIONS AND TIDE STRONGER THAN WIND

In A situation of this kind first bend on the jib, then bend the mainsail to the boom, but do not raise it. It is very difficult to raise and control the mainsail when at the mooring without its swinging the boat around in wild gyrations. Continue to hold the boom in the boom crotch. Raise the jib, make fast the jib halyard.

A good skipper and crew checking as they leave the mooring. How are the sails setting? Are the halyards too slack or too tight? Are the sheets set right for the wind and course sailed? Is the wind pennant swinging properly? Is the boat responding to movements of the tiller? Anything ahead of us? These and many more questions.

This diagram illustrates the normal maneuver in getting underway from a mooring. First, drifting to clear the mooring, then putting the jib aback to turn the bow in the direction to be sailed. Second, hauling on the sheets to adjust sails for a reach. The boat thereby gathers good momentum. Third, again adjusting, sails for the course.

Uncleat and drop the mooring, haul on jib sheet so that the sail fills. Sail down-wind under jib alone. When you have enough way on the boat and are also clear of other boats and obstructions, swing around into the wind. Quickly raise the mainsail. Remember the boat will drift some, and the tide may turn you, so allow enough sea room. Put the jib aback so the bow falls off. Now, with all the sail up, sail on a reach to again pick up momentum.

APPROACHING AND PICKING UP THE MOORING

1 On approaching a mooring, if yours is a cen-· erboard boat, drop the centerboard all the way. This gives the boat more stability, aids in steering and gives a steadier forward deck on which the crew can work when mooring.

Drop the jib, unsnap it from jib halyard, bag £ if, make jib halyard fast, then coil jib sheets.

4 Pick up mooring, cleat and make fast the mooring line, making sure the line passes through the chocks. Slip the boom into boom crotch. Haul the mainsheet in tight. Lower the mainsail carefully so that the sail does not go overboard and get vet. Release and unfasten the outhaul, unsnap the main halyard. Remove battens, then the mainsail from mast and boom tracks. Bag the sail. Check halyards after fastening to be sure that you allowed some slack for wet-weather tightening.

Unship rudder and tiller (if the boat is of ¾ the type that has a removable rudder). Fasten these down inside cockpit so that they can't slide around. Make fast all. loose gear. Coil all tines neatly and evenly.

In All approaches to picking up a mooring, the idea is to bring die boat to leeward of the mooring float, then to shoot up into the wind to a dead stop alongside of jt. Now, merely lean over, pick it up and make it fast to the mooring cleat without undue strain.

In ordinary sailing breezes most skippers learn to do this in an easy and quick manner without, fuss or mishap.

The trick is to learn when to start to shoot up into the wind and how far away the boat should be from the mooring float when the luff is started.

The number of boat lengths needed to reach the mooring buoy depends on the strength of wind. Since most small centerboard boats do not have too much forward movement when coming up into the wind, a distance of only one or two boat lengths ¡n light airs, or three in heavy winds, should be allowed (depending on the type of boat).

3 Judge the distance to the mooring, shoot up into the wind, main. sail flapping, with just enough may on the boat so that it comes to a dead halt at the mooring.

Keel boats have more forward movement (way) on them when coming into the wind; therefore more distance to the buoy from the luffing point must be allowed. This distance is generally about half again as much as allowed for a centerboard boat.

Whenever possible, at some distance from the mooring, drop the jib, unsnap it from the forestay, and stow in its proper bag.

With the flapping jib out of the way, picking up and dealing the mooring is made much simpler and easier. The jib also stays clean for it is away from the staining drips of the wet mooring and its sometimes muddy pennant. Then too, the helmsman need not be too concerned about which side of the mooring he brings the bow of the boat as the flapping jib will not interfere with the crew member's picking up the mooring float.

Without the jib, the boat does not point as high or go as fast as when it is up. Speed in itself is not important, however, the rate of approach is as allowances must be made for this when steering and shooting to the buoy.

However, in very light airs the jib is often left up, drawing whatever wind it can. Only after the mooring has been cleated is the jib lowered. Then it is carefully gathered in without touching the deck.

In strong winds and tides picking up the mooring is not so easy. The judging of distance and speed is more acute. The maneuvering must be more thoroughly planned if one is to pick up the mooring in a seamanlike manner. It is not uncommon to see skippers miss several times before grabbing and folding onto the mooring.

Sponge out the bilge, clean topsides and deck. If any fresh water remains in the vacuum bottle or ice water in the Scotch cooler, use it to wipe the varnish work. This takes off the salt water residue and helps keep the woodwork bright. Raise the centerboard all the way up. (On some small round-bottomed boats the centerboard is put part way down. This counters excess swinging and rolling in high winds that may cause them to capsize at the mooring.) Unroll cockpit cover and fasten in place.

Diagrammed on the following pages are the methods to approach a mooring float when running, reaching or beating and also a number of special situations that call for extra good planning.

When a condition exists where both the wind and a strong tide come from the same direction, the boat must be steered almost to the mooring be/ore shooting into the wind (above). The jib should be left up as all drive possible is needed to offset the retarding current. Only one length or less for a centerboard boat to one or one-and-a-half lengths for a keel boat should be allowed to shoot for the mooring. The wind and strong current quickly stop the forward motion of the boat. The mooring float must be speedily grabbed and made fast. This is not too easy a maneuver to perform as it calls for good timing, judging of distance, speed, and force of wind and current as the latter two affect the boat.

In a situation like the above, where wind and strong tide are opposing each other and the tide has the greater effect on the boat, the basic and safe way to approach the mooring is to drift down on it. Luff at a point 4 or 5 to 6 or 1 boat lengths away (depending on type of boat) when shooting for the mooring float. Ordinarily these distances are too great to bring the craft to the float, but the current in this case wilt carry it onward after drive from the sails is lost. The skipper has his hands full. He must steer right for the float, be ready to let go the main halyard and gather in the sail the moment the crew has successfully grabbed the mooring. As the mooring is made fast the boat will swing and turn with the current, bringing the stern to the wind. Should the mainsail be left up, the wind will fill the sail and swing it out making it difficult to lower. The craft may also start sailing on the mooring causing it to jibe. The diagram shows the courses sailed and the courses steered, which are of necessity different because of the effect of the strong current on the sailboat.

A well executed shoot for the mooring. The mainsheet is loose, the mainsail fluttering in the wind. The skipper is waiting for word from the crewman forward that the mooring pennant is fastened before he begins to lower the mainsail.

Regardless of the direction from which you approach a mooring, the approach is always made from the leeward of the mooring float. When running as diagrammed here, you must swing to a reach and then a beat before shooting for the mooring, though some skippers, who know the turning circle of their craft, round up to the mooring.

Diagrammed on this page are methods for approaching and picking up a mooring float, when beating, running or reaching under ordinary and usual sailing conditions.

To pick up a mooring when beating (above left), the craft should first be steered to a point several boat lengths to leeward of the mooring. Then the boat is luffed and steered directly for it (called shooting for the mooring). For a centerboard boat this point is one or two boat lengths away. In all approaches more distance for shooting into the wind must be allowed by a keel boat for it has greater momentum, or carry, through the water. Under all ordinary or usual conditions it w better to have the centerboard dropped and the jib lowered and stowed before the mooring is picked up. The crew then has a steadier forward deck to work on; besides, he does not have the fib flapping in his face interfering with the fastening of the mooring pennant.

Picking up the float, when reaching, is here diagrammed. Notice that the final shoot for the float is the same in all diagrams on this page. It is the most important part of the well-executed maneuver.

COMING ABOUT

Coming about is the maneuver of changing from one tack to the other, the bow swinging through the eye of the wind.
 
I He maneuver of coming about is easy to execute. Merely steer the boat towards the eye of the wind and continue around until the sails fill on the other side, executing a 90° turn. The forward momentum carries the boat around to its new course.

To illustrate, suppose you are sailing close-hauled. The helmsman gives the command, "Ready about." This warns the crew that the boat will come about and alerts them to be ready to handle sheets and move to the opposite side of the craft.

The command of execution is "hard a lee." The helmsman moves the tiller over to leeward (away from the wind). The bow swings into the wind and as the jib starts to flutter, the sheet is let go. The sails luff, then swing to the other side of the boat. The mainsail again fills with wind as does the jib, but the jib sheet, being loose, is hauled in to trim the sail. The crew moves inboard and continues moving across the boat as the boat turns and the sails' fill with wind on the other tack. The tiller is put amidships (on center) and the boat steered to its course. The boat has been put about and is now sailing on the other tack.

Letting the jib sheet loose takes the pressure of wind from the bow, allowing the boat to swing more easily. The jib sheet should be loosened only after the jib starts to flutter, which is but a moment or two after the tiller is moved. Useful drive in the sail is thus maintained until no longer needed.

The mainsail is held fast in position, not touched or adjusted.

On many racing boats only one command is given when coming about. The skipper after giving the command "Ready about" waits a few seconds, then pushes the tiller over. The pause between the command and pushing the tiller over gives the crew the few moments needed to prepare the lines for the quick maneuver. This can be done because the crew is constantly on the alert. In ordinary day sailing the skipper waits until all in the boat are ready before giving the second part of the two-part command.

How a boat is trimmed may affect its turning movement. If there is too much weight forward the bow may bury itself excessively in the sea and hinder the coming about procedure. If there's too much weight in the stern, causing the bow to lift from the water, the wind may keep

If the craft fails to make the turn to come about and refuses to answer the helm to head one way or the other the craft is said to be "in irons."

To get out of "irons" hold the tiller in a .position opposite to the direction you want to steer and also put the jib aback to turn the bow toward the direction you want to steer (see illustration on a following page). Only when fully about (not halfway or three-quarters way, for :the craft may swing back) should the tiller be set for the new course or the sheets trimmed and set.

To avoid getting into "irons” keep good momentum on the boat as it comes around. Sometimes the tiller has to be snapped over and other times brought around easy with a long shoot into the wind. The latter in good sailing breezes, the former in light airs.

If the wind is so light that the craft cannot come around on its own momentum it may need some coaxing. The sheets should be slackened and a bit of sculling resorted to (though not when racing). Sculling is moving the tiller back and forth. It gives some slight forward movement to the boat.

In ordinary sailing breezes no trouble should be encountered.

When coming about in strong wind and big seas a boat quickly loses way. Its turning movement is stopped somewhat by the force of the waves. Keep good way on the craft and wait for the smoother, smaller rollers to come along.

In squally weather it is best not to come about in the strong puffs of wind as the sails shake excessively, and forward movement may be stopped. Wait until the puff has passed.

Generally a boat should come about easily with good momentum so that it can shoot up into the wind a bit before turning.

The tiller should never be slammed over to an extreme turning angle as the rudder may then act as a brake and stop the boat's forward movement.

"LUFFING"—7*Ae term luffing is taken from that part of the sail that first starts to shiver and shake when steering the boat too close to the wind.

When heading directly into the wind and the sails shake or flutter you are "luffing."

If the boat is being steered too close to the direction of wind and the luff of the sails start to shiver you are "starting to tuff."

You are said to "luff up" when you deliberately steer the boat toward the eye of the wind.

The diagram at the left illistrates the turning movement of a craft when coming about.

The photograph at the right shows a Lightning class sailboat swinging from one tack to the other. Ifs right in the middle of its luff. The crew is busy, heads low, adjusting the jib sheets and shifting positions. The skipper has the tiller hard over for a quick maneuver.

HOW THE JIBE DIFFERS FROM COMING ABOUT

The Jibe

In The jibe the wind is from aft The stem of the boat and the leach of the sail pass through the eye of the wind in going from one tack to the other. The difference in the courses of the tacks may vary from zero degree to 180 degrees depending on the course to be sailed.

Coming About

In Coming about, the wind is from ahead. The bow and the luff of the sails pass through the eye of the wind as the boat goes from one tack to the other. Generally, the tacks are no closer than 90° from each other or 45° from the direction of the wind.
 
A boat turns on its CENTER OF ROTATION
 
A boat turns on its center of rotation. It does not turn like an automobile where the rear wheels almost follow in line with the front wheels when turning.

A boat's bow turns in the direction you want it to go but the stem swings the other way. There is a sliding or skidding effect. The boat slips sidewise.

This action is of concern when you are (1) sailing very close to another boat, {2) rounding a buoy, and (3) turning into a marina.

In close quarters the skipper must watch the stern as it swings as well as the bow. Enough room" should always be allowed for the stern to swing without its hitting another boat, a buoy or a stake.

On a small centerboard boat the **center of rotation" is about where the centerboard is, so the how and stern will swing almost equally. On a large boat, where much of the deep keel is aft, the "center of rotation" will be further aft. This means that the bow will swing more than the stern when the boat is turning.

The illustration at the left is comparable to a set of Sequence photos. All three Atlantic class boats are in different phases of rounding a marker, the flag of which shows.

The boat at the left has come .about and is sailing off on the port tack. The center† boat is turning to come about and is in the middle of its luff. The boat at the right is on the starboard tack just before the turn to come about.

HÅHO OVER HAHÙ~A term used when hauling in on the main sheet and all parts of the sheets are handed at one time, one hand after and over the other. This is often practiced when the wind is light or when jibing and there is practically no strain on the sheets. It is an easy, quick way to haul. It saves excess pulling, particularly when the boom is far out, as when running.

Taping Turnbuckus

Taping turnbuckles prevents the sails from catching on. Cotter pins and tearing, and reduces chafing of sails and sheets.

SMALL BOAT MAINSAILS

No Single item contributes as roach to the speed and movement of a boat as do the sails. Therefore, knowledge of their parts, how and what they are made of and their use, is of basic importance.

The object of this chapter is to acquaint you with these factors.

A sail is composed of many widths of material neatly sewn together to a prescribed size and shape. This shape is reinforced at the edges by an extra thin strip of material called a tabling, and at the corners by pieces called reinforcing patches,. Roping on one, two, or three edges, depending on the type of sail, is then sewn to the edge of the sail. This sewing of the rope to the sail is of most importance for it controls to quite a degree the set of the sail. The sailmaker, according to his own formula, takes a set number of stitches per foot of canvas to bind the canvas to the rope and while so doing takes in extra material. This is necessary to counteract the excessive stretch of rope as compared to canvas, it also serves to create the curve or shape the sail will take when hoisted. The relationships between stitches of canvas to foot of rope are sailmakers' secrets.

Countless experiments and experiences, over many, many years, in cutting and breaking in canvas (cotton) sails when new have brought them to a wonderful degree of efficiency. Canvas sails are slowly, gently, carefully broken in so that they will be wrinkle-free, enabling the wind to flow without interruption over their surfaces.

Until a few short years ago most sails were made from special grades of finely woven Egyptian cotton. Now a new synthetic material, Dacron, has come to the fore and has proved most effective. (Nylon and Orion have also been tried.)

Sailors worry some about this new material because it often is full of wrinkles and looks badly when comparer! with a fine-fitting •canvas suit of sails. They have been trained to believe that for maximum drive and efficiency a sail should be smooth and wrinkle-free, but the wrinkles on Dacron don't seem to hurt.

The principal sails on a small single-masted boat are the mainsail, the jib and the spinnaker.

Mainsails

There are three types of mainsails: the jib-headed (also called the Marconi and Bermudian), the gaff-headed; and the loose-footed. The jib-headed mainsail is by far the most commonly used in the U. S. A. It is shaped like a long right angle triangle.

COMPARISON OF CANVAS AND DACRON SAILS

CANVAS

—must be carefully and slowly broken in (not pulled out of shape) so that their contours will be free from wrinkles

—shrink in wet or damp weather

—are cut smaller when first made, to allow for stretch and breaking in to required dimension

—manila rope is used to reinforce the luff and foot of the sail except for head- sails (on big boats) where wire is used

—proved through many, many years of use

—can be used immediately, no breaking in period is required

DACRON

—practically unaffected by dampness

—often  are   full  of  wrinkles  yet  these wrinkles do not seem to  impair the sails' effectiveness,

—light and very strong

—cloth, rope and stitching thread are all made   from   one   material   (Dacron) thereby eliminating any difference in stretch or shrinkage

—has a hard, shiny finish

—is slightly more expensive than canvas

As readily seen in this drawing, the jib headed mainsail is long, narrow and triangular in shape. Its popularity is due to the ease of handling (only one halyard needed to raise it) and its wonderful "on the wind" ability. The majority of small boats use this type of sail for their main driving sail. Another characteristic is that the trailing edge (called the leech)t is the only side of the sail that does not have a reinforcing rope sewn to it. The leech is also cut in a long curve, from head to clew, that allows for the dotted straight line and the leech itself, gives extra drive to the sail when reaching or running, it is called the roach. Because the roach is apt to sag or flap in the wind it is held straight and stiff by thin, narrow, smoothly finished slats made from flexible hard wood, or plastic, called battens. Battens are tied tight in the batten pockets otherwise they would fly out and away when pressure of the wind is exerted

All relative parts of all sails are similarly named, whether the sail is a mainsail, a jib or a spinnaker (with slight exceptions on the gaff mainsail and the spinnaker).

The leading edge is the luff.

The. trailing edge is the leech.

The lower edge is the foot.

The top corner is the head.

The lower leading corner is the tack.

The trailing after corner is the clew.

The gaff-head mainsail is a four-sided (quadrilateral-shaped) sail whose upper edge is fastened to a spar called a gaff, hence its name.

The third type of mainsail is called loose-footed. Its general shape is similar to the other mains, but its foot or lower edge ¡s not fastened; it hangs loose. It is controlled by a single-line fastened to the clew and pulled out by a line attached to the end of boom, or by an outhaul.

Photograph at right of a Thistle` Class sloop shows the wrinkles in both mainsail and jib that often appear in sails made of the new synthetic material Dacron. Experienced sailors, knowing the effectiveness of smooth canvas sails, worry about these comparative irregularities but the wrinkles do not seem to affect the driving qualities of the sails.
 
On waters (and locations) where prevailing winds favor reaching and running, gaff-headed Craft are most effective because of the extra drive stemming from the disposition of canvas in sails of this type. In the photograph above, the Fish Class sloops are shown moving fast on a broad reach, making good use of their well-setting sails. These craft are popular on the Gulf Coast.

The gaff-headed mainsail differs from the jib-headed mainsail in that the sail is quadrilateral. It also is longer on the foot and much shorter along the luff, and its sail area generally is much greater. The fourth or high side of this sail is called the head and it is fastened by lashings to a spar called a gaff, from which the sail gets its name. The highest outside corner of the sale is called the peak and the top corner of the luff close to the mast is called the throat. The sail is raised by two halyards. One is called a throat halyard (it raises the throat) and the other is called the peak halyard because it controls the Set of the peak when the gaff is raised. The parts of this sail are named in the accompanying drawing. The other parts, except for the distinguishing characteristics, mentioned above, are named exactly as on the jib-headed mainsail shown on the previous page.

In this country the <gaff-headed mainsail, or variation thereof, came first. It was used on both pleasure craft and the then much more numerous sailing work boats. The gaff-headed main was used until the taller jib-headed mainsail proved itself more efficient and easier to handle. When proper staying was designed for the tall masts necessary for this type of sail, the gaff-headed mainsail rapidly lost favor. However, there are still some small one-design classes and cruising yachts that use this sail.

Typical loose-footed, miter-cut mainsails are shown in the above photograph. The boats ore Class X sailing dinghies. These dinghies can be readily transported to any desired location with a minimum of trouble. They are easily rigged and unrigged, and provide good sport in both summer and winter. Notice the batten pocket in the foot of the sail on the dinghy at the left and on the one at the right. It keeps this lower edge straight to allow for a more even flow of wind over the sail.

The loose footed mainsail is so named because the foot or lower edge of the sail hangs free and is not fastened by lacings or slides to a boom. This lower edge does not have a foot rope and is finished in a manner similar to a leech. The set or curvature of the sail, whether full or flat, is controlled by a line that is tied to the clew and runs to an outhaul on the boom. Besides the regular batten pockets in the leech, there often is a batten pocket sewn in the foot to keep this lower edge from curling up. This sail is currently used by many of the small dinghies classes.

The reaching jib is a huge triangular •shaped sail that overlaps the mast.

The storm jib is a small sail in comparison to others, made of very heavy material to withstand storm winds.

The old-fashioned jib topsail was a smaller sail than the standard working jib and was made from lighter material. It was hoisted as an additional sail in light weather, and set above the working jib.

Jibs

Originally, the sail that we call a jib was named a staysail. Old-timers who still call it by that name are technically correct. Jibs were set from the bowsprit of the old-time sailing vessel. The staysail was inboard and nearest the mast. Today, practically everyone calls the single sail forward of the mast of a small sloop, a jib.

There are several different types of jib, the working jib, the reaching jib, the storm jib, and the jib topsail. The first two named are of prime importance because they are in constant everyday use.            i

The Spinnaker

The spinnaker is comparatively the latest and newest development in sails. It replaces the jib when broad reaching or sailing before the wind. It is huge and bulbous-shaped, and made from the lightest of materials so that it can puff or billow out in the lightest of winds. It flies out and up, outside of the headstay. An additional pole is carried (called a spinnaker boom) to hold a lower corner out to catch the wind. The other corner's movements are controlled by a sheet.

The working jib, triangular in shape, is the ordinary average-sized sail that fits in the triangle formed by the mast, the foredeck and the jibstay.

Illustrated here is a quick and easy method of fastening a line to an anchor. This can be used with any type of anchor. Follow the illustrations at the left. No. 1 shows the anchor and a line that has a loop spliced in the end of it. In No. 2 the loop end has been passed through the ring, then pulled through far enough so that the loop can be passed around a fluke, as in No. 3. The loop is then drawn over the other fluke, and the line pulled upward as in No. 4 and No. 5. The last illustration N·. 6, shows the line pulled tight around the ring.

FASTENING SHEETS WHEN SAILING

Do not tie or knot sheets and halyards to dents when sailing. When rope gets wet, as it often-does, it shrinks in length and swells in diameter. This means that knots get so tight and stiff they cannot be untied quickly or easily. In an emergency, lines may have to be cut. Lines will hold when properly wrapped around a cleat and can be unwrapped at any time, whether wet or dry, without trouble.

The cleat should be fastened to the deck at a slight angle to the line of pull. This prevents jamming of sheets and allows for easier, faster handling.

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